Herbs & Botanicals · Fragrant resinous heartwood
Agarwood
Aquilaria malaccensis, A. sinensis, A. crassna · also called Aloeswood, eaglewood, oud, oudh, gaharu, chen xiang
Agarwood is the dark, fragrant resin-filled wood of Aquilaria trees, used as incense, perfume and traditional medicine. No human trials have tested it for any health use, so the benefits are unproven. The main cautions are that wild trees are endangered, burning it makes fine smoke, and the leaf tea may affect how medicines are handled by the body.
General information, not medical advice. Last substantive update · Not medically reviewed. A named clinician has not signed off on this page. How this page is made
About Agarwood
Agarwood is the resin-soaked heartwood of Aquilaria trees. It is prized for scent and used in traditional medicine, but no human trials exist. Safety questions include endangered trees, incense smoke and drug interactions from leaf tea.
What it is
Agarwood, also called oud, oudh, aloeswood or chen xiang, forms when Aquilaria trees are wounded and infected by fungi. The tree makes dark, fragrant resin as a defence. Several species are used, including A. sinensis, A. malaccensis and A. crassna.
Much of the market now comes from plantation trees whose resin is artificially induced.
What people use it for
Chinese, Ayurvedic and Southeast Asian medicine use it for pain, inflammation, diarrhoea, asthma symptoms, vomiting, and as a sedative. It is also burned as incense and used in perfume.
What research shows
Reviews in 2024 and 2026 found no human clinical trials. Lab and animal work shows anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, blood-sugar and calming effects, but these have not been tested in people.
The leaf is a separate product. In mice and rats, leaf extracts acted as a laxative. No human trial of leaf tea exists.
At a glance
Traditional uses history, not proof
- Chinese medicine (chen xiang), Ayurveda and Southeast Asian medicine for pain, inflammation, diarrhoea, asthma symptoms and vomiting, and as a sedative or stimulant.
- Burned as incense and used in perfume (oud).
Studied for research
- Inflammation, lab and animal only, no human trials.
- Calming effects of the oil and smoke, rat studies only.
- Leaf extract as a laxative, mouse and rat studies only.
- Blood sugar, germs and tumours in mice, lab and animal only.
Main compounds
- 2-(2-Phenylethyl)chromones, the signature compounds of the resin
- Sesquiterpenes in the essential oil
- Genkwanin and mangiferin in the leaf
Common forms
- Wood chips or powder
- Incense
- Essential oil (oud oil)
- Leaf tea or extract (an emerging product)
Research links: Review: Aquilaria spp. as a source of health beneficial compounds (2016) · Scoping review: antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory potential (2024) · Scoping review: agarwood and diabetes (2024) · Test-tube CYP study of agarwood tea (2022) · Review: sustainable agarwood production (2024) · Research Library · Genes & Biomarkers Library
The plant and its history
- Accepted scientific name
- Aquilaria malaccensis Lam., Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Spreng, Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte, and other Aquilaria and Gyrinops species
- Naming authority
- A. malaccensis Lam. and A. sinensis (Lour.) Spreng checked in GBIF. A. crassna not separately checked.
- Synonyms
- Not listed here; see GBIF.
- Common names
- Agarwood (English); Aloeswood (English); Eaglewood (English); Oud / oudh (Arabic); Chen xiang (Chinese); Gaharu (Malay / Indonesian)
- Botanical family
- Thymelaeaceae (the daphne family, order Malvales).
- Classification
- Plantae > Tracheophyta > Magnoliopsida > Malvales > Thymelaeaceae > Aquilaria > Aquilaria malaccensis; A. sinensis; A. crassna
- Native range
- Not verified from a primary source read.
- Habitat
- Not verified.
- What the plant looks like
- Roots: Not covered.; Stems: Resinous heartwood is the medicinal and perfume part. It forms only when the tree is wounded and infected, per a 2022 review.; Leaves: Leaves are used for tea and have separate chemistry (mangiferin, genkwanin glycosides).; Flowers: Not covered.; Fruit: Not covered.
- Cultivation
- Plantations and artificial induction are used to supply the market (reviews).
- Harvest and processing
- Not verified in a source read. Induction can be physical, chemical or biological (2022 review).
- Look-alikes and adulterants
- Name: Non-resinous Aquilaria whitewood; Note: The same tree but without the resin; had no chromones or sesquiterpenes in one analysis.; Name: Sandalwood; Note: A different tree (Santalum) also burned as incense; not the same chemistry.; Name: Synthetic oud; Note: Not a plant material; a common-sense caution, not from a source read.
- Sustainability and conservation
- A 2024 review says some Aquilaria species are classed as critically endangered. CITES listing reported but not verified.
Traditional use and history history, not clinical proof
| Tradition or era | Documented use | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Ayurvedic, Traditional Chinese and Southeast Asian medicine | A 2016 review lists use for joint pain, inflammatory ailments and diarrhoea, and as a stimulant, sedative and cardioprotective agent, also in Bangladesh and Tibet. | p27343768 |
| Perfumery, religion and culture | A 2022 review describes agarwood (oudh, gaharu) as used in incense, perfume and medicine. | p35684324 |
| Older medical use for pain, asthma and vomiting | A 2022 review says agarwood has been used since ancient times for pain, asthmatic symptoms and to stop vomiting. | p35566388 |
| Digestive use of the leaf | Leaf is described as a digestive in traditional medicine; leaf tea is an emerging product. | p20699592 |
Traditional use shows how a plant was used. It does not show that a supplement works or is safe today.
What is inside, and how it may work
What the plant contains and how those compounds act in cells and animals. Laboratory and animal mechanisms are not proven effects in people.
Main compounds
| Compound | Family | Where it is concentrated | Activity studied | Level of evidence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2-(2-Phenylethyl)chromones (PECs) PubChem 441964 | chromones | Resinous heartwood 64 in induced and 69 in wild A. sinensis wood extracts in one study | Antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting activity in lab studies 19 10 | Laboratory research |
| Sesquiterpenes (for example agarospirol) PubChem 21675005 | terpenoids | Heartwood; essential oil 20 types in induced and 27 in wild A. sinensis oil in one study | Aroma; anti-inflammatory activity in lab studies 10 20 | Laboratory research |
| Genkwanin PubChem 5281617 | flavonoid | Leaf Not given | The leaf glycoside genkwanin 5-O-primeveroside drove the laxative effect in mice; CID is for genkwanin itself, not the glycoside 8 | Animal research |
| Mangiferin PubChem 5281647 | xanthone glycoside | Leaf Not given | Named main leaf constituent with genkwanin primeveroside in the laxative studies 11 | Animal research |
Mechanisms, receptors and pathways
| Target or pathway | Gene or receptor | What was found | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| NF-kB, MAPK and NLRP3 inflammasome | NF-kB; MAPK; NLRP3 | Chromones and sesquiterpenes inhibit these pathways in cells and animals. 20 1 | In vitro and animal |
| Gut movement through acetylcholine receptors | Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors | Leaf extract and genkwanin 5-O-primeveroside strengthened ileum movement; atropine blocked it, and atropine blocked the stool effect in mice. 8 11 | Animal research |
| Acetylcholinesterase and alpha-glucosidase | AChE; alpha-glucosidase | Wood extracts inhibited both enzymes in test tubes. 13 | Laboratory research |
| Drug-metabolising enzymes | CYP2C9, CYP2D6, CYP3A4 | Tea extract inhibited them in a screen. 18 | Laboratory research |
Absorption, metabolism and elimination
- Absorption
- No human absorption data were found.
- Distribution
- Not found.
- Metabolism
- Not found in humans. Test tube: agarwood tea extract inhibits some CYP enzymes.
- Elimination
- Not found.
- Bioavailability
- Not established. A 2026 review names bioavailability as a challenge.
Isolated compounds versus whole extracts
Over 300 to 367 compounds are described. Wood and leaf have very different chemistry, and induced and wild wood overlap but are not identical. Results with one compound or one extract should not be applied to another.
Nutritional composition
A nutrient table is not meaningful for agarwood; it is used as a scent and traditional medicine, not as a food.
10 not enough evidence
What is Agarwood good for?
What agarwood has been studied for and how strong the evidence is. Every use below rests on lab, animal or traditional evidence, with no human trials.
Benefits, one by one
Each card is a research question, not a promise. Tap a goal to filter. Open a card to see the studies, doses and limits.
Any proven health benefit in people
Not enough evidenceReviews of the research on agarwood agree that no human clinical trials have tested it for any health use. Everything reported so far comes from cells, test tubes and animals.
3 studiesNone tested in people.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
Three reviews (2024, 2024, 2026) state that no clinical trials were found for infection, inflammation or diabetes uses.
Results
No human outcome data exist to report.
Effect sizes as reported
None.
Why this rating
No human trial was found by the reviews read, so no effect in people can be rated.
Form and dose studied
None tested in people.
Who was studied
None tested.
Limits
Reviews looked mostly at abstracts of preclinical papers; a trial could exist that they missed.
Why researchers looked
People ask whether a famous, costly wood works as a medicine.
Traditional use
Used for centuries in Chinese, Ayurvedic and Southeast Asian medicine and as incense and perfume.
Proposed mechanism None
Not applicable: this entry is about the gap in human evidence.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Absence of trials means absence of safety data too.
Calming inflammation (lab and animal only)
Not enough evidenceIn cells and animals, compounds from agarwood turned down inflammation signals. This has not been tested in people.
3 studiesExtracts and isolated compounds of different Aquilaria species; no hu…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trials of agarwood for this use were found in the reviews read. Reviews in 2022, 2024 and 2026 describe cell and animal data and say human trials are missing.
Results
Cell and animal models showed anti-inflammatory activity across gut, liver and brain inflammation (review summary).
Effect sizes as reported
No numbers were taken from the abstracts.
Why this rating
Only lab and animal evidence; the 2026 review names the lack of human trials as a major translation gap.
Form and dose studied
Extracts and isolated compounds of different Aquilaria species; no human forms.
Who was studied
Cell lines and animal models.
Limits
Variable chemistry between species and between wild and induced wood; poor bioavailability noted by the 2026 review.
Why researchers looked
Traditional use for pain and swelling led researchers to test its chemistry on inflammation pathways.
Traditional use
Used traditionally for joint pain, inflammatory ailments, asthma symptoms and to stop vomiting.
Proposed mechanism Lab and animal
Chromones and sesquiterpenes reduced NF-kB and MAPK signalling, nitric oxide and superoxide in cells; one review also lists the NLRP3 inflammasome.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
No human safety data on anti-inflammatory use.
Calm, anxiety, low mood and sleep (animal only)
Not enough evidenceAgarwood oil and incense are traditionally used to calm the mind. In rats, breathing agarwood oil, powder or incense changed behaviour in anxiety and depression tests. There are no human trials.
2 studiesEssential oil, fragrant powder and line incense by inhalation (rats);…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trials of agarwood for this use were found in the reviews read. A 2022 review of the oil mentions anxiety, depression and insomnia but no human trials in its abstract.
Results
In rats with induced anxiety or depression, behaviour in four tests differed from untreated model rats (P<0.05) after inhaling agarwood oil, powder or incense.
Effect sizes as reported
Effect sizes not given in the abstract read.
Why this rating
Single animal study plus a review of mostly lab work; no human data.
Form and dose studied
Essential oil, fragrant powder and line incense by inhalation (rats); agarwood species not stated.
Who was studied
Rats.
Limits
The rat abstract was read in part only. Burning incense also produces smoke, which has its own risks.
Why researchers looked
Agarwood is traditionally burned or taken to soothe the body and mind and to help sleep.
Traditional use
Sedative and calming use in Chinese and Southeast Asian traditions.
Proposed mechanism Animal research
Rat study measured serotonin, glutamate and GABA in the hippocampus plus two glutamate-related proteins to explore a mechanism; the abstract read does not give the results.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Smoke from incense may irritate the lungs; see the safety tab.
Memory-related enzyme blocking (test tube only)
Not enough evidenceIn the lab, agarwood extracts blocked acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that some dementia medicines also target. That does not mean it helps memory in people.
2 studiesWood extract (induced vs wild); no human form.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trials of agarwood for this use were found in the reviews read.
Results
Induced agarwood extract inhibited acetylcholinesterase with an IC50 of 0.0493 mg/mL, reaching 93.52% of the wild agarwood extract.
Effect sizes as reported
IC50 0.0493 mg/mL (test tube).
Why this rating
Test-tube enzyme result only.
Form and dose studied
Wood extract (induced vs wild); no human form.
Who was studied
Enzyme assay.
Limits
Enzyme blocking in a dish does not show brain effects; many compounds do this and fail in trials.
Why researchers looked
Chromones from agarwood are reported to protect nerve cells and block this enzyme in the lab.
Traditional use
Not a documented traditional claim in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase in a test-tube assay.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None known; no human study.
Traditional uses: pain, asthma, vomiting, digestion
Not enough evidenceAgarwood has long been used for pain, asthma symptoms, vomiting, diarrhoea and as a stimulant or sedative. These uses come from tradition, not from trials.
2 studiesWood chips, powder and oil in traditional systems.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trials for these uses were found.
Results
Not applicable.
Effect sizes as reported
None.
Why this rating
Tradition only.
Form and dose studied
Wood chips, powder and oil in traditional systems.
Who was studied
Not applicable.
Limits
Traditional use is not proof of safety or benefit.
Why researchers looked
Traditional use guides what modern researchers test.
Traditional use
Ayurvedic and Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southeast Asia, Bangladesh and Tibet (review).
Proposed mechanism Traditional use
Not tested for these uses.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Smoke from burning agarwood is an irritant risk in people with asthma; this is a theory, not studied.
Constipation relief from the leaf (animal only)
Not enough evidenceExtracts of Aquilaria leaf made rodents pass more stool, and they did not cause diarrhoea the way senna did. Leaf tea is an emerging product; there are no human trials.
3 studiesEthanol and acetone extracts of A. sinensis and A. crassna leaf. A me…
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trial of leaf extract or leaf tea was found.
Results
Ethanol or acetone leaf extracts raised stool frequency, weight and water content in mice and rats and sped gut transit; senna did the same but caused severe diarrhoea.
Effect sizes as reported
Rat doses of 300 and 600 mg/kg raised stool frequency and weight (animal doses; not a guide for people).
Why this rating
Three consistent animal studies from one research group; no human data.
Form and dose studied
Ethanol and acetone extracts of A. sinensis and A. crassna leaf. A methanol extract did not work.
Who was studied
Normal and constipated mice and rats; guinea pig gut tissue.
Limits
Animal only. A milder laxative in rodents does not mean mild in people; belly cramps, loose stools and fluid loss are not studied in humans.
Why researchers looked
The leaf has been used as a digestive in traditional medicine.
Traditional use
Used as a digestive in traditional medicine.
Proposed mechanism Animal research
A leaf compound (genkwanin 5-O-primeveroside) boosted gut movement through acetylcholine receptors, blocked by atropine, in isolated animal gut and in mice.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Expect a laxative action in people as a theory only. See safety tab.
Blood sugar and diabetes (lab and animal only)
Not enough evidenceExtracts blocked sugar-digesting enzymes and lowered blood sugar in animals. No human trials have been found.
2 studiesVarious extracts; not in human form.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
A 2024 scoping review found no clinical trials.
Results
Animals showed lower blood sugar, better blood fats, anti-obesity and organ-protective effects (review summary).
Effect sizes as reported
No numbers taken.
Why this rating
Lab and animal only; scoping review does not grade study quality.
Form and dose studied
Various extracts; not in human form.
Who was studied
Cells, enzymes and animals.
Limits
Diabetes needs proper care; this must not replace prescribed treatment.
Why researchers looked
Researchers screen wood and leaf extracts for effects on sugar and fat handling.
Traditional use
Not a traditional claim in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Lab and animal
Inhibition of alpha-glucosidase, alpha-amylase and lipase; more adiponectin release in fat cells; less oxidative stress.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Taking it alongside diabetes medicines could in theory lower sugar further; not studied.
Slowing germs in the lab
Not enough evidenceAgarwood extracts slowed some bacteria and fungi in test tubes. This does not show it treats an infection in people.
1 studiesMainly A. sinensis extracts.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No clinical trials found by the 2024 scoping review.
Results
Inhibition of named fungi and bacteria in lab tests.
Effect sizes as reported
No numbers taken.
Why this rating
Lab only.
Form and dose studied
Mainly A. sinensis extracts.
Who was studied
Cultures.
Limits
Test-tube germ killing often fails in the body.
Why researchers looked
Traditional use for infection-related conditions prompted lab tests.
Traditional use
Not clearly documented in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Extracts inhibited fungi (Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Fusarium oxysporum, Candida albicans) and bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus).
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None known.
Antioxidant activity (test tube)
Not enough evidenceAgarwood extracts mopped up free-radical chemicals in the lab. This is a test-tube finding with no proven benefit.
2 studiesWood extract.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human trials of agarwood for this use were found in the reviews read.
Results
Induced agarwood scavenged DPPH and ABTS radicals (IC50 0.1873 and 0.0602 mg/mL), 80.89% and 93.52% of wild agarwood.
Effect sizes as reported
IC50 values from test tube.
Why this rating
Test-tube result.
Form and dose studied
Wood extract.
Who was studied
Chemical assays.
Limits
Antioxidant assays do not predict health benefit.
Why researchers looked
Chromones are reported to have antioxidant activity.
Traditional use
Not a traditional claim.
Proposed mechanism Laboratory research
Radical scavenging in DPPH and ABTS assays.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
None known.
Tumour growth in mice
Not enough evidenceAgarwood essential oil slowed growth of a human colon-cancer tumour grafted into mice. It is not a cancer treatment.
1 studiesEssential oil of A. crassna, animal doses.
Studies, doses and limits
What the trials found
No human cancer trial found.
Results
Significant growth inhibition of subcutaneous HCT 116 tumours in nude mice.
Effect sizes as reported
Not reported in abstract.
Why this rating
One mouse study, one oil from A. crassna.
Form and dose studied
Essential oil of A. crassna, animal doses.
Who was studied
Nude mice.
Limits
Do not use in place of cancer care.
Why researchers looked
Researchers tested the oil after earlier cell results.
Traditional use
Not a traditional claim in the sources read.
Proposed mechanism Animal research
Not stated in the abstract.
A proposed mechanism does not show that the effect happens in people.
Safety in people unknown.
Connections to the rest of health
How Agarwood connects to the rest of our health knowledge graph. Every link says what kind of connection it is. A safety link (for example to the liver) is a warning, not a benefit. A study that merely mentions a topic never creates a benefit link.
Explore every connection: goals, body systems, organs, symptoms, genes
A. Wellness goals
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Holistic Balance | Not enough evidence | Any proven health benefit in people: Reviews of the research on agarwood agree that no human clinical trials have tested it for any health use. Everything reported so far comes from cells, test tubes and animals. | 1 20 5 | |
| Inflammation Balance | Not enough evidence | Calming inflammation (lab and animal only): In cells and animals, compounds from agarwood turned down inflammation signals. This has not been tested in people. | 20 1 2 | |
| Calm Relaxation | Not enough evidence | Calm, anxiety, low mood and sleep (animal only): Agarwood oil and incense are traditionally used to calm the mind. In rats, breathing agarwood oil, powder or incense changed behaviour in anxiety and depression tests. There are no human trials. | 7 3 | |
| Anxiety Support | Not enough evidence | Calm, anxiety, low mood and sleep (animal only): Agarwood oil and incense are traditionally used to calm the mind. In rats, breathing agarwood oil, powder or incense changed behaviour in anxiety and depression tests. There are no human trials. | 7 3 | |
| Mood Balance | Not enough evidence | Calm, anxiety, low mood and sleep (animal only): Agarwood oil and incense are traditionally used to calm the mind. In rats, breathing agarwood oil, powder or incense changed behaviour in anxiety and depression tests. There are no human trials. | 7 3 | |
| Better Sleep | Not enough evidence | Calm, anxiety, low mood and sleep (animal only): Agarwood oil and incense are traditionally used to calm the mind. In rats, breathing agarwood oil, powder or incense changed behaviour in anxiety and depression tests. There are no human trials. | 7 3 | |
| Memory Support | Not enough evidence | Memory-related enzyme blocking (test tube only): In the lab, agarwood extracts blocked acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that some dementia medicines also target. That does not mean it helps memory in people. | 13 19 | |
| Brain Health | Not enough evidence | Memory-related enzyme blocking (test tube only): In the lab, agarwood extracts blocked acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that some dementia medicines also target. That does not mean it helps memory in people. | 13 19 | |
| Joint Support | Traditional use | Not enough evidence | Traditional uses: pain, asthma, vomiting, digestion: Agarwood has long been used for pain, asthma symptoms, vomiting, diarrhoea and as a stimulant or sedative. These uses come from tradition, not from trials. | 9 2 |
| Breathing Support | Traditional use | Not enough evidence | Traditional uses: pain, asthma, vomiting, digestion: Agarwood has long been used for pain, asthma symptoms, vomiting, diarrhoea and as a stimulant or sedative. These uses come from tradition, not from trials. | 9 2 |
| Digestive Support | Traditional use | Not enough evidence | Traditional uses: pain, asthma, vomiting, digestion: Agarwood has long been used for pain, asthma symptoms, vomiting, diarrhoea and as a stimulant or sedative. These uses come from tradition, not from trials. | 9 2 |
| Digestive Support | Not enough evidence | Constipation relief from the leaf (animal only): Extracts of Aquilaria leaf made rodents pass more stool, and they did not cause diarrhoea the way senna did. Leaf tea is an emerging product; there are no human trials. | 8 11 12 | |
| Gut Health | Not enough evidence | Constipation relief from the leaf (animal only): Extracts of Aquilaria leaf made rodents pass more stool, and they did not cause diarrhoea the way senna did. Leaf tea is an emerging product; there are no human trials. | 8 11 12 | |
| Blood Sugar Balance | Not enough evidence | Blood sugar and diabetes (lab and animal only): Extracts blocked sugar-digesting enzymes and lowered blood sugar in animals. No human trials have been found. | 5 13 | |
| Metabolic Health | Not enough evidence | Blood sugar and diabetes (lab and animal only): Extracts blocked sugar-digesting enzymes and lowered blood sugar in animals. No human trials have been found. | 5 13 | |
| Immune Support | Not enough evidence | Slowing germs in the lab: Agarwood extracts slowed some bacteria and fungi in test tubes. This does not show it treats an infection in people. | 1 | |
| Cellular Protection | Not enough evidence | Antioxidant activity (test tube): Agarwood extracts mopped up free-radical chemicals in the lab. This is a test-tube finding with no proven benefit. | 13 19 |
B. Body systems
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Immune System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Any proven health benefit in people Studied for: Calming inflammation (lab and animal only) | 1 20 5 2 13 19 4 |
| Nervous System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Calm, anxiety, low mood and sleep (animal only) Studied for: Memory-related enzyme blocking (test tube only) | 7 3 13 19 |
| Digestive System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Traditional uses: pain, asthma, vomiting, digestion Studied for: Constipation relief from the leaf (animal only) | 9 2 8 11 12 |
| Respiratory System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Traditional uses: pain, asthma, vomiting, digestion | 9 2 |
| Endocrine System | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Studied for: Blood sugar and diabetes (lab and animal only) | 5 13 |
C. Body parts and organs
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lungs | Very low certainty | Fine incense smoke damaged human cells in a lab study of three incense types; agarwood smoke itself is untested. Preparation or compound: incense smoke |
16 | |
| Gut | Very low certainty | Laxative action in rodents. Preparation or compound: leaf extract |
12 |
D. Symptoms
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Constipation | Not enough evidence | Leaf extract acted as a laxative in rodents. Preparation or compound: leaf extract |
12 |
I. Biomarkers
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| NF-kB signalling and nitric oxide production (lab markers) | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 1 20 |
| Brain chemicals 5-HT, glutamate and GABA in rat hippocampus | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: measured (direction not read). A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 7 |
| Acetylcholinesterase activity (test tube) | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 13 |
| Stool frequency, weight and water content (animal) | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: raised. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 12 11 8 |
| Alpha-glucosidase, alpha-amylase and lipase activity (lab) | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 5 13 |
| Tumour growth in nude mice | Biological association | Not enough evidence | Measured in trials: lowered. A lab change is not the same as a health benefit. | 4 |
J. Genes, receptors and enzymes
K. Biological pathways
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| NF-kB signalling | Preliminary mechanism | In vitro | Inhibited by agarwood chromones in cells. | 1 |
L. Active compounds
| Connected to | Kind of connection | Evidence status | Context | Studies |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2-(2-Phenylethyl)chromones | Not enough evidence | Signature compounds of the resin; lab activity only. Preparation or compound: resinous heartwood |
19 | |
| 2-(2-Phenylethyl)chromones (PECs) | Biological association | In vitro | Antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting activity in lab studies Preparation or compound: Resinous heartwood |
19 10 |
| Sesquiterpenes (for example agarospirol) | Biological association | In vitro | Aroma; anti-inflammatory activity in lab studies Preparation or compound: Heartwood; essential oil |
10 20 |
| Genkwanin | Biological association | Animal | The leaf glycoside genkwanin 5-O-primeveroside drove the laxative effect in mice; CID is for genkwanin itself, not the glycoside Preparation or compound: Leaf |
8 |
| Mangiferin | Biological association | Animal | Named main leaf constituent with genkwanin primeveroside in the laxative studies Preparation or compound: Leaf |
11 |
Each connection is stored with the ingredient, the connected record, the kind of connection, the evidence status, the supporting studies, the preparation or compound involved, and a review date (last reviewed October 25, 2026).
Evidence at a glance: what changed in 5 lab markers
Tap a number to show only those markers. Counts are markers, not people.
The evidence
The research centre for Agarwood. Every record here was checked against PubMed or the publisher's page; we never list a study we have not verified.
Evidence by outcome
Bars show how many studies we found for each outcome, not how well it works. People are added up across trials only (reviews are not added, to avoid double counting).
How we rate evidence
High certainty
Several well-run trials or reviews agree; further research is unlikely to change the picture much.
Moderate certainty
Good trials point the same way, but some doubt remains.
Low certainty
Small, short or inconsistent trials. The finding could change with better research.
Very low certainty
Very little or very weak human data. Treat as a possibility only.
Mixed findings
Trials or reviews disagree with each other.
Not enough evidence
Not enough human research to say either way.
Evidence against
Good research found no benefit, or found harm.
We take the reviewers' own risk-of-bias and GRADE statements where they exist, and otherwise judge from study size, design, consistency, directness and whether a product matches what is sold. Many publications do not make evidence high. Method note: We built on our existing summary, read PubMed abstracts, and checked GBIF and PubChem. CITES, IUCN and LiverTox records could not be read and are flagged. Studies were read as abstracts only.
Study library: every study we checked 23
| Study | Design | People | Product, dose, length | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abd Rashed 2024 The Therapeutic Potential of Agarwood as an Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Agent: A Scoping Review. Antibiotics (Basel) · PMID 39596767 · DOI |
Scoping review review |
not stated in abstract Preclinical papers 2013-2023 |
Agarwood extracts and chromones mostly A. sinensis not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Reports that A. sinensis is the most studied agarwood for antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory uses. Some studies showed inhibition of fungi (Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Fusarium oxysporum, Candida albicans) and of Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. Several chromones inhibited NF-kB activation, LPS-induced nitric oxide production and superoxide generation. The authors conclude that, despite no clinical trials, agarwood shows antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties in the lab and that intervention studies are needed. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity Limitations: Only the abstract was read. A scoping review does not rate study quality. Lab and animal findings only. Funding and conflicts: The authors affirm that they have no financial interests or personal relationships that could potentially bias the findings presented in this paper. This commitment to transparency underlines the integrity of their research. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Alamil 2022 Rediscovering the Therapeutic Potential of Agarwood in the Management of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases. Molecules · PMID 35566388 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract Literature on agarwood oil |
Agarwood oil Aquilaria heartwood oil not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
States agarwood has been used since ancient times to relieve pain and asthma symptoms and to stop vomiting, and that agarwood oil contains multiple bioactive compounds that can regulate chronic-inflammation mechanisms. The authors see potential for development as an anti-inflammatory; the abstract reports no human trials. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Anti-inflammatory potential Limitations: Only the abstract was read. A review that argues for potential; not evidence of benefit in people. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Chen 2022 Chemical Composition and Potential Properties in Mental Illness (Anxiety, Depression and Insomnia) of Agarwood Essential Oil: A Review. Molecules · PMID 35889407 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract Literature on agarwood essential oil |
Agarwood essential oil heartwood oil, various sources not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Notes agarwood is traditionally used to soothe body and mind, relieve anxiety, as an antidepressant and for insomnia. Reviews the chemistry of essential oils from different sources (mainly sesquiterpenes and 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones) and research on their sedative and tranquillising activity and mechanism. The abstract mentions no human trials. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Chemistry; sedative and calming pharmacology Limitations: Only the abstract was read. The abstract does not say which studies were in animals. Treat the calming claims as unproven in people. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Dahham 2016 In vivo toxicity and antitumor activity of essential oils extract from agarwood (Aquilaria crassna). BMC Complement Altern Med · PMID 27450078 · DOI |
Animal research animal |
not stated in abstract Female Swiss mice; nude mice with HCT 116 tumours |
Essential oil extract Aquilaria crassna (oil from wood) not stated in abstract single dose; 28 days · vs control |
Single oral dose of 2000 mg/kg essential oil: LD50 above 2000 mg/kg in female Swiss mice. In a 28-day study at 100 and 500 mg/kg there were no significant differences from control in food and water intake, body weight, blood counts, blood chemistry, organ weights, gross findings or tissue appearance. In nude mice with HCT 116 colorectal tumours the oil significantly inhibited tumour growth. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: LD50, 28-day toxicity measures, tumour growth Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Mice; one species (A. crassna) and one oil; not a test of the leaf, wood chips or smoke. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Fadzil 2024 The Potential Therapeutic Use of Agarwood for Diabetes: A Scoping Review. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) · PMID 39598457 · DOI |
Scoping review review |
not stated in abstract Preclinical papers 2008-2024 |
Agarwood extracts not itemised in abstract not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
No clinical trials were found. In vitro and animal studies showed reduced activity of alpha-glucosidase, alpha-amylase and lipase, increased adiponectin secretion during fat-cell development, reduced oxidative stress, and lower blood sugar, better blood fats, anti-obesity and organ-protective effects in animals. The authors call the lab and animal evidence promising and call for more research. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Digestive enzymes, blood sugar, fats, oxidative stress Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Scoping review; study quality not graded. No human data. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Gao 2019 Overview of sesquiterpenes and chromones of agarwood originating from four main species of the genus RSC Adv · PMID 35520206 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract Literature |
Agarwood compounds heartwood not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Summarises 367 compounds isolated from agarwood of A. sinensis, A. malaccensis, A. crassna and A. subintegra, grouped into 11 types, mostly sesquiterpenes and chromones. Shared and species-specific components are listed to help quality-control standards. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Compound classes Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Chemistry review. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Gong 2023 [Anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of agarwood inhalation and its mechanism]. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi · PMID 36872273 · DOI |
Animal research animal |
not stated in abstract Rat models of anxiety and depression |
Agarwood essential oil, fragrant powder, line incense (inhalation) Agarwood (species not stated in abstract) not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
In rats made anxious (MCPP) or depressed (chronic mild stress), agarwood essential oil, agarwood fragrant powder and agarwood line incense changed behaviour in open-field, light-dark, tail-suspension and forced-swim tests compared with untreated model rats (P<0.05). Levels of 5-HT, glutamate and GABA(A) in the hippocampus, and the proteins GluR1 and VGluT1, were measured to explore the mechanism. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Behaviour tests; hippocampal 5-HT, Glu, GABA; GluR1, VGluT1 Limitations: Only the abstract was read. The abstract was cut off before the full neurotransmitter results; only what was read is stated. Rats, inhaled; no human data. Article is in Chinese with an English abstract. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Hara 2008 Laxative effect of agarwood leaves and its mechanism. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem · PMID 18256503 |
Animal research animal |
not stated in abstract Mice; isolated ileum |
Acetone and methanol extracts of leaf; isolated compound Aquilaria sinensis leaf not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs senna; methanol extract |
An acetone extract of A. sinensis leaves and senna both increased stool frequency and weight in mice; a methanol extract did not. The leaf extract was milder than the anthraquinone laxative senna and did not cause diarrhea as a severe side effect. The main active compound was genkwanin 5-O-beta-primeveroside. It strengthened movement in isolated ileum, and this was blocked by atropine but not azasetron, pointing to acetylcholine receptors rather than serotonin. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Stool frequency and weight; ileal contraction Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Mice and isolated tissue only; no human data. Extract type matters: only the acetone extract worked. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Hashim 2016 Aquilaria spp. (agarwood) as source of health beneficial compounds: A review of traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol · PMID 27343768 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract Literature on Aquilaria plant materials |
Aquilaria spp. plant materials wood and other parts (not itemised in abstract) not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Surveys Aquilaria plant materials. Reports sesquiterpenes, 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones, genkwanins, mangiferins, iriflophenones, cucurbitacins and phenolic acids. Crude extracts and isolated compounds showed anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-ischemic, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, laxative and mosquitocidal effects and effects on the central nervous system. The authors judge the materials safe at the doses tested but say toxicity and the safety of incense smoke need more study. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Traditional use, chemistry, pharmacology, safety Limitations: Only the abstract was read. A narrative review with no stated search method in the abstract. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Huang 2023 Quality Similarity between Induced Agarwood by Fungus and Wild Agarwood. J Agric Food Chem · PMID 37750837 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
not stated in abstract Wood samples |
Induced vs wild agarwood vs whitewood Aquilaria sinensis heartwood not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Induced agarwood (A. sinensis inoculated with a fungal mix from wild agarwood) and wild agarwood extracts contained 64 and 69 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones, versus none in non-resinous whitewood. Essential oils held 20 sesquiterpenes (relative content 36.19%) in induced and 27 (54.92%) in wild agarwood, none in whitewood. The authors conclude the induced wood is extremely similar to wild. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Chromones, sesquiterpenes Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Chemistry only, one batch type; says nothing about effects or safety in people. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Kakino 2010 Agarwood induced laxative effects via acetylcholine receptors on loperamide-induced constipation in mice. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem · PMID 20699592 |
Animal research animal |
not stated in abstract Loperamide-constipated mice; guinea pig jejunum and ileum |
Ethanol extracts of leaf (EEA-1, EEA-2) Aquilaria sinensis and A. crassna leaf not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs senna |
Ethanol extracts of A. sinensis and A. crassna leaves, their main constituents (mangiferin and genkwanin-5-O-primeveroside) and senna all increased stool frequency and weight in mice with loperamide-induced constipation. The leaf extracts did not cause diarrhea; senna caused severe diarrhea. The A. sinensis extract increased gut transit and tension in isolated guinea pig gut, blocked by atropine, and atropine also blocked its stool effect in mice. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Stool frequency and weight; gut transit; gut tension Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Animal model of constipation; no human data. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Kakino 2010 Laxative effects of agarwood on low-fiber diet-induced constipation in rats. BMC Complement Altern Med · PMID 21078136 · DOI |
Animal research animal |
not stated in abstract Normal and low-fibre-diet constipated rats |
Ethanol extract of leaf (EEA) Aquilaria sinensis leaf not stated in abstract single dose or 14 days · vs senna; untreated |
In normal rats, a single dose of 600 mg/kg and 14 days of 300 and 600 mg/kg of the leaf extract raised stool frequency and weight. In rats made constipated with a low-fibre diet, 600 mg/kg (single dose) or 300 and 600 mg/kg for 14 days raised stool frequency, weight and water content and sped passage of a marker. Senna did the same but caused severe diarrhea; the authors report the extract did not. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Stool frequency, weight, water content, marker passage Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Rat study; doses are per kilogram of rat and give no guide for people. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Ma 2023 How Closely Does Induced Agarwood's Biological Activity Resemble That of Wild Agarwood? Molecules · PMID 37049682 · DOI |
Lab analysis lab |
not stated in abstract Wood extracts |
Induced vs wild agarwood extracts heartwood (species not stated in abstract) not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Both induced and wild agarwood contain sesquiterpenes and 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones. Total chromone content of induced agarwood reached 82.96% of wild. Induced agarwood scavenged DPPH and ABTS radicals and inhibited acetylcholinesterase and alpha-glucosidase (IC50 0.1873, 0.0602, 0.0493 and 0.2119 mg/mL), reaching 80.89%, 93.52%, 93.52% and 69.47% of wild agarwood activity. The authors suggest induced wood could replace wild wood in medicine. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Chemistry; antioxidant; acetylcholinesterase and alpha-glucosidase inhibition Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Test-tube only. The authors suggest replacement; that is their view, not shown in people. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Sampasivam 2024 Towards sustainable agarwood production: integrating microbial interactions, anatomical changes, and metabolite biosynthesis. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol · PMID 40833630 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract Literature |
Agarwood formation xylem / heartwood not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Describes agarwood as a high-value product of Aquilaria used in perfumery, religious items and traditional medicine. Escalating demand has overexploited Aquilaria, with some species now classified as critically endangered. Reviews how xylem changes and 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone production are linked and the role of fungi such as Fusarium in natural and artificial induction. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Formation biology; sustainability Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Review. Funding and conflicts: None declared. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Shivanand 2022 Agarwood-The Fragrant Molecules of a Wounded Tree. Molecules · PMID 35684324 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract Literature |
Agarwood and induction methods heartwood not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Describes agarwood (oudh, gaharu) as fragrant resinous wood used in incense, perfume and medicine, formed when Aquilaria trees are wounded and infected by fungi. Overharvesting has depleted natural agarwood and endangered the trees. Artificial induction (physical, chemical, biological) is compared with natural formation for yield and quality. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Formation; induction; compounds Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Review. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Tseng 2026 Size-Segregated Incense Aerosols Drive ROS-Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Programmed Cell Death Across Human Cell Types. Chem Res Toxicol · PMID 41661689 · DOI |
Laboratory research lab |
not stated in abstract A549, HEK293T and SH-SY5Y cell lines |
Incense aerosol extracts (three types) not agarwood-specific not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Smoke particles from three common incense types were studied in three human cell lines. Most particles (80% or more) were smaller than 0.18 um. The finest, oil-soluble fractions caused the strongest cell death, oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. The sandalwood-dominant incense was the most potent of the three tested. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Cell viability, oxidative stress, mitochondrial function Limitations: Only the abstract was read. The abstract does not say any of the incenses was agarwood. Cell study only; shows a plausible hazard of incense smoke in general, not a measured harm from agarwood in people. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Wang 2018 Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Activity of Agarwood and Aquilaria Plants. Molecules · PMID 29414842 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract Literature |
Agarwood and Aquilaria plants wood and other parts not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Notes wild yields are shrinking and prices rising, and that planting and artificial induction are increasing yields. More than 300 compounds have been isolated. Reviews the new compounds found after 2010 and the pharmacology of agarwood and Aquilaria plants. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Chemistry; pharmacology Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Review. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Yan 2022 Drug Metab Bioanal Lett · PMID 36508274 · DOI |
Laboratory research lab |
not stated in abstract Enzyme assays (Vivid CYP450 kits) |
Aqueous extract of agarwood tea Aquilaria malaccensis (tea material; part not stated in abstract) not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Agarwood tea aqueous extract (Aquilaria malaccensis) potently inhibited three human drug-metabolising enzymes: CYP2C9 (Ki 5.1 ug/mL), CYP2D6 (Ki 34.5 ug/mL) and CYP3A4 (Ki 20.3 ug/mL), by a likely non-competitive mode. At 1000 ug/mL it barely inhibited CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C19, CYP2E1 and CYP3A5. The authors say animal and clinical work is needed. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Inhibition of eight CYP enzymes Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Test-tube screening kit only; does not show an interaction in people. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Yu 2022 Chemical and Bioactivity Diversity of 2-(2-Phenylethyl)chromones in Agarwood: A Review. Chem Biodivers · PMID 36266258 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract Literature |
2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones heartwood not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Calls these chromones key components of agarwood, with antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and acetylcholinesterase-inhibitory activities. Suggests tree species, induction method and formation time all influence chromone diversity, and argues that different chromone types should be used in quality control. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Chemistry; bioactivity; quality control Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Review covering 1976 to September 2021. Funding and conflicts: Not stated in the abstract read Registration: None Read: abstract |
| Zhang 2026 Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Agarwood (Aquilaria Spp.): An Integrated Review of Phytochemistry, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Applications. Drug Des Devel Ther · PMID 41884488 · DOI |
Narrative review review |
not stated in abstract In vitro and in vivo models |
Agarwood and isolated compounds Aquilaria and Gyrinops heartwood not stated in abstract not stated in abstract · vs n/a |
Describes sesquiterpenoids and 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones as the main active constituents. They act mainly by inhibiting the NF-kB and MAPK pathways, and also the NLRP3 inflammasome. In cell and animal models the effects span gut, liver and brain inflammation. The authors state there is a significant translation gap because there are no human clinical trials, and that variability in the chemistry and bioavailability are challenges. Methods, limits and fundingOutcomes: Anti-inflammatory mechanisms Limitations: Only the abstract was read. Review of preclinical work only. Funding and conflicts: The authors declare that they have no competing interests in this work. Registration: None Read: abstract |
| s-cites CITES Checklist: Aquilaria spp. · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: not-read | ||
| s-gbif-malaccensis GBIF Backbone: Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. (usageKey 5524063) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: full-text | ||
| s-livertox NIH LiverTox (NCBI Bookshelf) · Source |
Reference database n/a |
Methods, limits and fundingRead: not-read |
What we do not know yet
- No randomised human trial of agarwood in any form.
- No human safety or drug-interaction study of leaf tea.
- Safety of agarwood smoke has not been tested.
- Whether induced wood is as safe and effective as wild wood in people.
How new research is added
New studies are found by a saved PubMed search and are placed in a review queue. A person reads each one before it changes any evidence rating or safety wording.
Lab markers
What changed in blood or saliva tests during trials. A changed number is not the same as feeling or being healthier, and we give no "normal ranges".
Other 6
NF-kB signalling and nitric oxide production (lab markers)
Lowered in trials
Inflammation switches inside cells. Researchers measure how much a compound turns them down.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Used to screen anti-inflammatory activity in cells.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Cell results rarely carry over to people.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Several agarwood chromones inhibited NF-kB activation, LPS-induced nitric oxide production and superoxide generation in cell studies. | Cell and lab studies | Agarwood chromones |
Brain chemicals 5-HT, glutamate and GABA in rat hippocampus
Measured (direction not read) in trials
Chemical messengers in a memory and mood region of the rat brain.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Measured to explore how agarwood vapour might calm behaviour in rats.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Animal brain chemistry does not show effects in people.
Safety implication
None specific.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 7 | 5-HT, glutamate and GABA(A) in the hippocampus and the proteins GluR1 and VGluT1 were measured; the abstract read does not give the direction of the results. | Rat anxiety and depression models | Inhaled agarwood oil, powder, incense |
Acetylcholinesterase activity (test tube)
Lowered in trials
Activity of an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, a brain messenger.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Many dementia drugs block this enzyme.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
A dish result; not evidence for memory benefit.
Safety implication
Drugs that block this enzyme can slow the heart; whether agarwood does is unknown.
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 13 | Induced agarwood extract inhibited acetylcholinesterase (IC50 0.0493 mg/mL), 93.52% of wild agarwood activity. | Enzyme assay | Wood extract |
Stool frequency, weight and water content (animal)
Raised in trials
Counts and weight of droppings and how wet they are, used as a measure of laxative action in rodents.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Main measure in the leaf studies.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Animal measure; people may react differently.
Safety implication
Increased water content hints at a laxative effect that could dehydrate with heavy use (theory).
| Study | Result | People | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| 12 | In rats, 300 and 600 mg/kg leaf ethanol extract for 14 days raised stool frequency, weight and water content; senna also caused severe diarrhoea. | Normal and constipated rats | A. sinensis leaf ethanol extract |
| 11 | Leaf extracts raised stool frequency and weight in loperamide-constipated mice without diarrhoea. | Mice | A. sinensis and A. crassna leaf extracts |
Alpha-glucosidase, alpha-amylase and lipase activity (lab)
Lowered in trials
Enzymes that break down starch and fat in the gut.
Not enough evidenceResults and what it means
Why it was measured
Blocking them can slow sugar absorption.
Statistical vs. clinical meaning
Lab only.
Safety implication
Unknown in people.
Tumour growth in nude mice
Lowered in trials
Size of a grafted tumour.
Not enough evidenceSafety
What studies and official sources say about side effects, medicines and who should check first. Each point shows what kind of evidence it comes from.
Main points to know 5
- No human safety studies exist. We found no clinical trial and no systematic human safety data for agarwood wood, oil, incense or leaf tea. A 2016 review judged plant materials safe at the doses tested in animals, but said toxicity and the safety of incense smoke need more study. Review 9
- Wild trees are being cut to extinction. Overharvesting for agarwood has depleted wild trees. A 2024 review says some Aquilaria species are now classed as critically endangered. Aquilaria are widely reported to be listed in CITES Appendix II, which controls international trade, but we could not read the CITES record, so treat that as not verified here. Buying wood or oil of unknown origin may support illegal trade. Review 14 15 21
- Burning agarwood fills the air with fine smoke. A 2026 lab study of three common incense types found most smoke particles were very small and that the finest oily fractions damaged human cell lines. It did not say any was agarwood, and the most potent was a sandalwood-based one. Smoke from agarwood has not been tested, but fine smoke in closed rooms is a reasonable concern, especially with asthma or lung disease. Lab 16 9
- Leaf tea may affect how your body handles medicines. In test tubes, an agarwood tea extract (Aquilaria malaccensis) strongly blocked three liver enzymes that clear many drugs (CYP2C9, CYP2D6, CYP3A4). Whether this happens in people is unknown. If you take a prescription medicine, ask a pharmacist before drinking it. Laboratory research 18
- Leaf extract acts as a laxative in animals. In mice and rats, Aquilaria leaf extracts raised stool frequency, weight and water content. No human data exist, so loose stools, cramps or fluid loss are possible but unstudied. Animal research 12 11 8
Side effects 3
| Effect | How often | Severity and recovery | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Any side effect in people No human adverse-event reports for agarwood were found in the sources read. Not finding reports is not proof of safety. | Not established | unknown unknown | None 9 |
| Loose stools or increased bowel movements (leaf extract) Seen as a laxative effect in rodents; the leaf extract did not cause the severe diarrhoea that senna did in the same studies. | Not established | unknown in people expected reversible (theory) | Animal research 12 11 |
| Breathing irritation from incense smoke Cell study of incense smoke in general, not agarwood-specific. | Not established | unknown unknown | Lab 16 |
Liver
We found no published human case of liver injury from agarwood. The LiverTox site blocked automated access, so we could not check whether it has an entry. In mice, 28 days of an A. crassna essential oil at 100 and 500 mg/kg caused no significant change in blood chemistry or liver tissue. 4 23
How often. No frequency exists. Not finding reports is not proof of safety, and leaf, tea and oil are different from wood.
Monitoring. No agency monitoring advice was found. Stop and seek care for yellow skin or eyes, dark urine or severe tiredness.
This is a safety connection. It is not evidence that Agarwood supports liver health.
Medicines and supplements 4
| With | Why it matters | Importance | Evidence | What to do |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Medicines cleared by CYP2C9, CYP2D6 or CYP3A4 prescription | In a test-tube screen, an aqueous extract of agarwood tea (A. malaccensis) inhibited CYP2C9 (Ki 5.1 ug/mL), CYP2D6 (34.5) and CYP3A4 (20.3), apparently non-competitively. | Not shown in people. If real, drug levels could rise. CYP2C9 handles warfarin, for example; this is an example of why the question matters, not a finding. | Laboratory research Very low certainty 18 | If you take warfarin or any narrow-margin medicine, ask your doctor or pharmacist before using agarwood tea. |
| Sedatives, sleep aids, alcohol and other calming medicines sedative | Theory: traditional calming use and rat results suggest a sedating action. | Not studied in people. | Pharmacological theory Very low certainty 7 3 | Be cautious combining with sedating medicines. |
| Laxatives and diuretics over-the-counter | Theory: leaf extract raised stool water content in animals; adding other laxatives could increase fluid and salt loss. | Not studied in people. | Animal research Very low certainty 12 | Avoid stacking laxatives; ask a pharmacist. |
| Diabetes medicines prescription | Theory: lab and animal studies show blood-sugar-lowering effects. | Not studied in people. | Preclinical Very low certainty 5 | If you use insulin or tablets, tell your care team before adding it. |
Who should check first 5
| Situation | Advice | Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Pregnancy and breastfeeding | No safety data were found. No LactMed entry was confirmed. Avoid ingesting agarwood or its leaf tea, and ask your clinician about incense smoke. | No data 9 |
| Children and babies, especially around burning incense | No data. Fine smoke may irritate small lungs; keep children out of smoky rooms. | Pharmacological theory 16 |
| Asthma, COPD or other lung conditions (smoke) | Incense smoke is a general irritant; agarwood smoke has not been tested. Ventilate or avoid. | Lab 16 |
| Bowel disease, diarrhoea or dehydration (leaf tea) | The leaf extract is a laxative in animals; avoid if you have these conditions. | Animal research 12 |
| Allergy to Aquilaria wood, resin or incense | No allergy data found; stop if you react. | No data |
Overdose, product quality and regulators
Summary. Only animal toxicity data exist. An A. crassna essential oil had an LD50 above 2000 mg/kg in mice, and a 28-day study at 100 and 500 mg/kg showed no significant differences in blood, organ weights or tissue. These tell us little about wood powder, leaf tea or smoke in people.
Animal. One oil, one species of mouse. Nude mice were also used for a tumour test.
Human doses studied. No human dose has been studied in a trial.
High dose or long term signals. None found; none studied in people.
Overdose response. No overdose case was found.
Genotoxicity. Not found in the sources read.
Toxic plant parts. No toxic part was identified in the sources read. Agarwood leaf and wood differ in chemistry, so results do not transfer between them.
The main quality problems are variable chemistry and uncertain origin. We did not find a published survey of adulterated products. Wood from different Aquilaria species, from wild trees and from fungus- or chemically-induced trees differs in chemistry; non-resinous whitewood has none of the characteristic compounds.
Wild vs induced wood. Fungus-induced A. sinensis wood had 64 chromones versus 69 in wild wood, and sesquiterpene relative content of 36.19% versus 54.92%. Another lab study found induced wood reached 82.96% of wild chromone content. Safety was not compared. 10 13
Species and induction variability. Tree species, induction method and formation time all influence chromone profile; reviewers argue for chromone-based quality control. 19 6
Induction methods. Physical, chemical and biological induction exist. Residues from chemical inducers were not addressed in the sources read. 15
| Body | Action | Date |
|---|
When to get medical help
- Wheezing, chest tightness or shortness of breath after burning incense.
- Hives, swelling of the face or lips, or trouble breathing after any agarwood product.
- Severe or lasting diarrhoea, belly cramps or signs of dehydration after leaf tea.
- Yellow skin or eyes, dark urine or severe tiredness.
- Fainting or an unusually slow heartbeat if you also take heart or dementia medicines.
Stop the supplement and contact a clinician or emergency service. In the US, Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222.
General information only, not medical advice. Ask a clinician or pharmacist before use, especially with medicines, in pregnancy or with a health condition. See the Natural Remedy Safety guide.
Frequently asked questions
What is agarwood?
The dark, resin-rich heartwood of Aquilaria trees, used as incense, perfume and in traditional medicine.
Is agarwood the same as oud?
Yes. Oud (or oudh) is the Arabic name for agarwood and for its oil and perfume.
Does agarwood work as a medicine?
Does agarwood help anxiety or sleep?
What is agarwood leaf tea?
Can agarwood tea interact with medicines?
In a test-tube study, tea extract blocked three enzymes that clear many drugs. It is unproven in people, but ask your pharmacist if you take prescriptions.
Is it safe to burn agarwood?
Smoke from incense can contain very fine particles that harmed human cells in a lab study of other incense types. Agarwood smoke itself has not been tested. Ventilate rooms and avoid it with asthma.
Is agarwood endangered?
Is induced agarwood as good as wild agarwood?
Is it safe in pregnancy or breastfeeding?
No safety data were found. Avoid taking it by mouth and ask your clinician.
Does agarwood harm the liver?
No human case of liver injury was found, but no good safety studies exist either. One mouse study of the oil showed no liver changes.
Explore by health goal
Digestive SupportHolistic BalanceInflammation BalanceCalm RelaxationAnxiety SupportMood BalanceBetter SleepMemory SupportBrain HealthJoint SupportBreathing SupportGut HealthBlood Sugar BalanceMetabolic HealthImmune SupportCellular Protection
Editorial transparency
- Written by
- AlternativeMed editorial team. Research compiled with AI assistance, then checked against PubMed records.
- Medical review
- None. This page has not been reviewed by a physician or pharmacist.
- First published
- 2026-10-25
- Last substantive update
- 2026-10-25
- How we research
- We built on our existing summary, read PubMed abstracts, and checked GBIF and PubChem. CITES, IUCN and LiverTox records could not be read and are flagged. Studies were read as abstracts only.
- How we rate evidence
- See "How we rate evidence" in the Evidence tab.
- Independence
- No product is promoted on this page. No affiliate links are shown. If one is added later it will be labelled and kept apart from the evidence.
Sources 23
Each source was opened and checked. Where we read only the abstract, it says so. The small numbers in the text point here.
- Abd Rashed A, Jamilan MA, Abdul Rahman S et al.. The Therapeutic Potential of Agarwood as an Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Agent: A Scoping Review.. Antibiotics (Basel). 2024. PMID 39596767. DOI 10.3390/antibiotics13111074. (abstract)
- Alamil JMR, Paudel KR, Chan Y et al.. Rediscovering the Therapeutic Potential of Agarwood in the Management of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases.. Molecules. 2022. PMID 35566388. DOI 10.3390/molecules27093038. (abstract)
- Chen X, Wang C, He Q et al.. Chemical Composition and Potential Properties in Mental Illness (Anxiety, Depression and Insomnia) of Agarwood Essential Oil: A Review.. Molecules. 2022. PMID 35889407. DOI 10.3390/molecules27144528. (abstract)
- Dahham SS, Hassan LE, Ahamed MB et al.. In vivo toxicity and antitumor activity of essential oils extract from agarwood (Aquilaria crassna).. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2016. PMID 27450078. DOI 10.1186/s12906-016-1210-1. (abstract)
- Fadzil MAM, Abu Seman N, Abd Rashed A. The Potential Therapeutic Use of Agarwood for Diabetes: A Scoping Review.. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2024. PMID 39598457. DOI 10.3390/ph17111548. (abstract)
- Gao M, Han X, Sun Y et al.. Overview of sesquiterpenes and chromones of agarwood originating from four main species of the genus. RSC Adv. 2019. PMID 35520206. DOI 10.1039/c8ra09409h. (abstract)
- Gong B, Wang CH, Wu YL et al.. [Anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of agarwood inhalation and its mechanism].. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2023. PMID 36872273. DOI 10.19540/j.cnki.cjcmm.20221027.401. (abstract)
- Hara H, Ise Y, Morimoto N et al.. Laxative effect of agarwood leaves and its mechanism.. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2008. PMID 18256503. (abstract)
- Hashim YZ, Kerr PG, Abbas P et al.. Aquilaria spp. (agarwood) as source of health beneficial compounds: A review of traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology.. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016. PMID 27343768. DOI 10.1016/j.jep.2016.06.055. (abstract)
- Huang M, Ma S, Qiao M et al.. Quality Similarity between Induced Agarwood by Fungus and Wild Agarwood.. J Agric Food Chem. 2023. PMID 37750837. DOI 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c04322. (abstract)
- Kakino M, Izuta H, Ito T et al.. Agarwood induced laxative effects via acetylcholine receptors on loperamide-induced constipation in mice.. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2010. PMID 20699592. (abstract)
- Kakino M, Tazawa S, Maruyama H et al.. Laxative effects of agarwood on low-fiber diet-induced constipation in rats.. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2010. PMID 21078136. DOI 10.1186/1472-6882-10-68. (abstract)
- Ma S, Huang M, Fu Y et al.. How Closely Does Induced Agarwood's Biological Activity Resemble That of Wild Agarwood?. Molecules. 2023. PMID 37049682. DOI 10.3390/molecules28072922. (abstract)
- Sampasivam Y, Razman KK, Mazlan NSM et al.. Towards sustainable agarwood production: integrating microbial interactions, anatomical changes, and metabolite biosynthesis.. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2024. PMID 40833630. DOI 10.1093/jimb/kuaf025. (abstract)
- Shivanand P, Arbie NF, Krishnamoorthy S et al.. Agarwood-The Fragrant Molecules of a Wounded Tree.. Molecules. 2022. PMID 35684324. DOI 10.3390/molecules27113386. (abstract)
- Tseng YE, Teng MC, Huang YS et al.. Size-Segregated Incense Aerosols Drive ROS-Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Programmed Cell Death Across Human Cell Types.. Chem Res Toxicol. 2026. PMID 41661689. DOI 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6c00020. (abstract)
- Wang S, Yu Z, Wang C et al.. Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Activity of Agarwood and Aquilaria Plants.. Molecules. 2018. PMID 29414842. DOI 10.3390/molecules23020342. (abstract)
- Yan P, Tze UY, Jagadish PAR et al.. . Drug Metab Bioanal Lett. 2022. PMID 36508274. DOI 10.2174/1872312815666220707114744. (abstract)
- Yu M, He QQ, Chen XQ et al.. Chemical and Bioactivity Diversity of 2-(2-Phenylethyl)chromones in Agarwood: A Review.. Chem Biodivers. 2022. PMID 36266258. DOI 10.1002/cbdv.202200490. (abstract)
- Zhang MM, Wen T, Cui MW et al.. Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Agarwood (Aquilaria Spp.): An Integrated Review of Phytochemistry, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Applications.. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2026. PMID 41884488. DOI 10.2147/DDDT.S559380. (abstract)
- . CITES Checklist: Aquilaria spp.. . . (not-read)
- . GBIF Backbone: Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. (usageKey 5524063). . . (full-text)
- . NIH LiverTox (NCBI Bookshelf). . . (not-read)